OUTBREAK OF MONKEYPOX

According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the number of monkeypox cases worldwide has increased to over 7,500 in at least 57 nations. The monkeypox virus was formerly restricted to west and central Africa, but it is increasingly spreading to new nations—even those outside of Africa. The majority of new cases since early May have been documented in Europe, the US, and mainly among men who have sex with other men. Health officials are concerned that societal stigma would hinder efforts to track down and contain the disease because new cases are mostly affecting gay and bisexual males, as people may be less willing to disclose their symptoms or share their sexual history. Although monkeypox is often a mild viral illness, it can be dangerous or even fatal in extremely young children and immunocompromised individuals. It can be prevented with vaccines that are also used to immunize against smallpox because it is spread through close contact.

These vaccines are in short supply globally, and the WHO is collaborating with manufacturers to find a solution. The continent's top public health organization expressed the wish that wealthy nations would refrain from hoarding vaccines, as they did with COVID-19 inoculations, while monkeypox is endemic in 11 countries in Africa. In May, the UK reported a rare incidence of monkeypox, a virus related to smallpox. The initial UK case, which originated from a tourist in Nigeria, is now believed to be unrelated to the larger outbreak, but the UK rapidly reported a large number of additional cases. The virus has expanded to more than 4500 confirmed or suspected cases across at least 40 nations, including the US and Canada, with the UK having the greatest number of cases worldwide.

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Textbook Flu-like symptoms are frequently the first signs of monkeypox. A few days later, you have a rash that typically starts on the face and spreads out after you have a fever, headache, muscle aches, and backaches. It has similarities to chickenpox. Starting to appear are flat, red spots that resemble pimples. 

However, there have been numerous case reports of the current outbreak's symptoms, which have a rather wide range of appearances. Some people are experiencing no rash at all, while others are experiencing very mild rashes. Many times, instead of the rash beginning on the face, people only see it concentrated in the vaginal region. According to scientists, close contact is the main method of transmission for monkeypox. 

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Previous studies have shown that respiratory droplets can transmit monkeypox virus particles over short distances, but it is unknown whether aerosols, which are much smaller airborne particles, can also transmit monkeypox. Therefore, contact with the pus-filled lesions that the disease generates has been linked to high viral levels, and this is thought to be the primary method of transmission. Compared to a virus that can be easily transferred through the air, such as COVID-19, monkeypox is significantly less contagious. However, it is fairly simple to catch if you are in close proximity to someone. According to US health officials, incidences of monkeypox are concentrated in particular areas. The CDC claims that at least part of the cases in the US are guys who are bisexual, gay, or who have intercourse with other men. Despite the fact that the virus can infect anyone, regardless of sexual orientation, infectious disease experts believe that some members of this community are at high risk for viral exposure and subsequent dissemination.  This is the first time a recently emerging disease has surfaced and is concentrated in this population since the HIV epidemic of the 1980s. 

One significant difference between now and then is that, in contrast to before, when public health officials responded slowly to the HIV epidemic, they are working extremely hard to reach out to any bisexual men now. They distribute information at Pride celebrations, for example. Push notifications are being sent on dating apps like Grinder. The majority of cases of monkeypox disappear without any medical intervention. However, certain antiviral medications and a vaccination created for smallpox also work to treat monkeypox. Bavarian Nordic of Denmark, the sole manufacturer of a monkeypox vaccine with a license, claimed it would meet demand. It functions exactly like a customary vaccine. Your immune system is strengthened. It boosts your immune system, putting you in a better position to combat the monkeypox infection you now have. The origin of the monkey in Monkeypox is the 1958 Danish discovery of monkeypox in laboratory monkeys. However, it is not believed that monkeys are the primary disease carrier or vector. It appears to be widely circulating among some rodents in the rain forests of the Congo Basin in central Africa, while scientists are unsure of whether the species is the primary carrier.

In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a nine-year-old boy was the first person to contract the disease in 1970. There have been no reported fatalities from the current outbreak's about 4.5 thousand confirmed cases of monkeypox in nations where the virus is uncommon. In Nigeria, there has only ever been one fatality so far.

                                                                COVID PANDEMIC

Eventually, the COVID-19 pandemic will spread endemically. Will it then be over, though? When will that occur, too?

In theory, a disease becomes endemic when its reproduction number or number averages one over time, meaning that one infected person on average infects one other person so the overall case burden doesn't go up or down. This is how the word endemic looks on a chart; the number of people infected with covert 19 more or less stabilizes over time instead of showing big unexpected surges like we are seeing now. But it's not only about the fact that R Number Covert 19 will become endemic once the crisis has passed; it's also about who decides what amount of severe sickness and disruption to our lives is acceptable. 

The fact that the term "endemic" starts with the letter "end" is a bit paradoxical because it really marks the start of a new phase rather than the end of an existing one. Endemic or endemic implies in the people. Endemic is one of those words that seems to be understood differently by different people, it's us shifting from treating the illness as if it's a public health emergency to treating it as a sickness that we're going to live with in the past century humanity has survived a lot of illnesses; the only illness affecting humans that has been completely eradicated has been smallpox before that, though it caused havoc in the 20th century alone, it is estimated that 300 million people died of smallpox, but it existed long before then, scientists estimated that it could have emerged anywhere between 16 000 and 68 000 years ago, the first known victim was an e. The last natural infection was in 1977 in Somalia, then the disease was declared eradicated by the World Health Organization in 1980, almost two centuries after Edward Jenner's invention of the smallpox vaccine.it would take a large worldwide effort and be nearly impossible with Hobart given that the only virus that has been destroyed so far is smallpox, and we haven't even been able to eradicate polio, which is a much easier virus but yet we can't eradicate it. The majority of illnesses throughout history simply retreat to their animal hosts or undergo low-level mutations. 

The plague, which killed up to 2,000 humans annually in the Middle Ages because of its persistence in fleas in various regions of the world, is one such example. There is no definitive way to determine whether a disease is endemic, however, infection rates may be high and fatalities may also be high. There won't be a single day when the pandemic is gone; instead, the harm the virus poses to us will gradually diminish. In other words, we must make a difficult decision about how much sickness we are willing to tolerate in society while carrying on with our daily lives. There was no clear end to the 1918 outbreak, but after World War One people were just eager to move on even though the virus was still spreading in some form. The virus that caused the Spanish flu, which also killed at least 50 million people, eventually morphed into less lethal variants; its descendants are part of the recurring strains of the flu that do the rounds each year making it an endemic disease.

In addition to influenza, other endemic diseases like malaria, which infects 240 million people annually, HIV, with one and a half million new infections each year, and measles, which infects 10 million, still kill a significant number of people. Despite this, we decide that we can live with the fact that more people would prefer not to get the flu because we have vaccines and treatment options, and the sars outbreak was ended with aggressive quarantine measures. However, that level of containment was made possible because the incubation period, which is the amount of time between infection and illness, was so short. While covert 19 symptoms typically appear five to six days after infection, sars symptoms did not manifest until two to seven days after infection; in contrast, people with covert 19 were infectious before symptoms appeared. Because of this, containment was so effective that there were only 8,000 cases of stars. Because the disease is zoonotic—meaning the pathogen lives on in animals—and because viruses are very complicated, as we saw from Stars Kobe 2, a zoonotic virus that has an animal host caused such massive morbidity and mortality in humans because it jumped a host and we were a naive population with no prior exposure, the World Health Organization hasn't officially declared it to be extinct. The last case was in 2004, but the organization hasn't officially declared it.

It is true that some young children experience eight to ten colds annually before the age of two, but that number decreases as they grow older and develop virus immunity. However, we must keep in mind that in addition to the four Verona viruses that cause the symptoms associated with the common cold, there are over 100 rhinoviruses that have the same effects.  The symptoms of the common cold are widespread, but the virus that is actually causing it is quite complex. Although little is known about how these seasonal coronaviruses survive, they may provide a roadmap for how Sars kovi 2 may develop. one of the most researched instances People are regularly infected with the seasonal coronavirus 229e throughout their lifetimes; it is unclear, though, whether this is due to waning immunity or whether the virus is evolving to evade it. When scientists analyzed the blood of individuals who were likely exposed to 229e decades ago for antibodies, the results were startling. People had immunity to the virus from the recent past but not to the versions that were yet to come, indicating that the virus was evolving to evade immunity. There are some clear parallels here variants such as omicron and delt contain high levels of infection blocking antibodies against a 1984 version of 229e. However, they have much less capacity to neutralize a 1990s version of the virus. how sar's cov2 changes in the future.

The next few years and months will determine how this crisis plays out. If it behaves like other coronaviruses, it may only cause a minor annoyance in years or decades, but it may also develop into a much more serious threat. If a virus becomes less virulent, it has a selective advantage because the person it infects has a greater chance of spreading the virus. However, this is not the case with the sars of two viruses because um severe cases of the disease have it's just too early to determine if omicron is headed for becoming a minor annoyance since there isn't really a selection pressure favoring a less virulent virus and because the study on omicron's origins isn't apparent yet. Omicron contains the most mutations of the versions we've seen so far, according to a map published in the scientific journal Nature. And there is no obvious connection between it and its forerunners. It's important to consider how much older people and the vulnerable are able to develop immunity. We need to work hard to protect those vulnerable people, just as we work hard to protect vulnerable people in Iraq and Afghanistan. If there's one thing the last two years have taught all of us, it's that don't ever get cocky and think that you can predict what's going to happen next. The immune system remembers a virus after exposure because of the antibodies that circulate in the blood.  

And identify and kill viruses in the blood Helper t cells aid in the pathogen recognition process. When the body requires fresh antibodies, b cells produce killer t cells that destroy infections. All four of these cell types are present in individuals who recover from covet 19; however, there is evidence that immunity can fade over time, by as much as 50% every three months, and that there may be novel variations; in other cases, immunity to omicron can last only a few weeks. There was a great sense of relief when vaccines were first developed, and many believed it signaled the beginning of the end of the pandemic, but omicron has shown us how a new variant can evade immunity. We have new strains of the size kobe 2 that are circulating, and the protection that the vaccine provides may not be sufficient to protect against these new strains. provide protection against omicron We obviously had an emphasis on vaccinations and rightly so, but we think in this next year we'll see a lot more conversation around therapies. 

Vaccines, rapid tests, boosters, and treatments have brought the endemic label closer than ever, but as other diseases have demonstrated, there is one important factor that determines when a pandemic ends. 

                              The current Disease Outbreak

The current Disease Outbreak News on the multi-country monkeypox outbreak is an update to the previous Disease Outbreak News from 10 June, with updated data, additional information on surveillance and reporting, One Health, gatherings, risk communication, community engagement, and international travel and entry points. We've removed the difference between endemic and non-endemic nations in this issue, reporting on countries as a group where feasible to emphasize the need for a coordinated approach.

As cases of monkeypox spread across multiple locations, scientists have warned that the infectious disease could be transmitted to animals through human medical waste. However, the monkey pox outbreak in predominantly Europe and North America has left scientists baffled as to why the disease has spread so quickly, given that the majority of cases had previously been reported in certain parts of Africa. The president of the World Health Organization for Animal Health has stated that outbreeding could be transmitted to animals through human medical waste. He went on to say that rats can pick up the virus through human medical waste, which, according to specialists, might lead to a global outbreak. Monkeypox was first found in laboratory monkeys in 1958, and since then, numerous animal species like squirrels and rats have been identified as vulnerable to it in areas where it circulates, but the species that are harmed the most in this manner are still unknown.

While epidemiological investigations are ongoing, most reported cases in the recent outbreak have presented through sexual health or other health services in primary or secondary health care facilities, with a history of travel primarily to countries in Europe, and North America, or other countries rather than to countries where the virus was not historically known to be present, and increasingly, recent travel locally or no travel at all.

Confirmation of one case of monkeypox, in a country, is considered an outbreak. The unexpected appearance of monkeypox in several regions in the initial absence of epidemiological links to areas that have historically reported monkeypox, suggests that there may have been undetected transmission for some time. According to the World Health Organization, there are presently about 650 confirmed cases of monkeypox infections reported from 26 different countries. The map on your screen displays the nations with the greatest instances, which include areas like the United Kingdom and Spain. Portugal, the Netherlands, and Germany are all members of the European Union. The virus was initially detected in humans in 1970 and has been sporadic in several African countries, including Nigeria, where an epidemic has been continuing since 2017. The clinical presentation of monkeypox patients linked to this epidemic has been inconsistent thus far. Many of the patients in this epidemic are not presenting with the traditional clinical presentation of monkeypox (fever, swollen lymph nodes, followed by a centrifugal evolving rash). The presence of only a few or even a single lesion, lesions that begin in the genital or perineal/perianal area and do not spread further, lesions that appear at different (asynchronous) stages of development, and the appearance of lesions before the onset of fever, malaise, and other constitutional symptoms are all described as atypical features.

 Cases have primarily, but not entirely, been confirmed among guys who self-identify as men who have sex with men and participate in broad sexual networks in ostensibly newly impacted nations. Person-to-person transmission continues, with the majority of cases affecting a single demographic and socioeconomic group. It's very possible that the real number of instances is still undercounted. This could be due to a combination of factors, including a lack of early clinical recognition of an infectious disease previously thought to be limited to West and Central Africa, a non-severe clinical presentation in the majority of cases, limited surveillance, and a lack of widely available diagnostics. While attempts are being made to close these gaps, it is critical to keep an eye out for monkeypox in all demographic groups in order to avoid further transmission. Transmission is currently predominantly tied to recent sexual interactions in nations that appear to be recently impacted. 

There's a good chance that more instances may be discovered without identifiable transmission pathways, possibly in different population groupings. Given the large number of nations reporting cases of monkeypox across various WHO regions, it is quite possible that more countries will discover cases and the virus will spread further. Close or direct physical contact (face-to-face, skin-to-skin, mouth-to-mouth, mouth-to-skin) with infected sores or mucocutaneous ulcers, particularly during sexual activity, and respiratory droplets. All patients discovered in newly impacted countries with PCR-confirmed samples have been identified as West African clade infected. Monkeypox virus is divided into two clades, one of which was initially discovered in West Africa (WA) and the other in the Congo Basin (CB). The WA clade has previously been linked to a case fatality ratio (CFR) of less than 1%, but the CB clade appears to produce more severe illness, with a CFR of up to 10% previously recorded; both estimations are based on infections among a mainly younger population in the African environment.

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Patients with a rash that progresses in sequential stages – macules, papules, vesicles, pustules, scabs, at the same stage of development over all affected areas of the body – may be associated with fever, enlarged lymph nodes, back pain, and muscle aches should be on the lookout in all countries. Many people are experiencing uncommon symptoms during this epidemic, such as a localized rash with only one lesion. Lesions may arise asynchronously, with a predominantly or entirely peri-genital and/or peri-anal distribution, as well as localized, painful swollen lymph nodes. Some individuals may have sexually transmitted infections, which should be checked for and treated as needed. These people may show up in a variety of community and health-care settings, including primary and secondary care, fever clinics, sexual health services, infectious disease units, obstetrics and gynecology, emergency departments, and dermatological clinics, to name a few. Passengers and anyone who may have had close contact with an infected individual while traveling should be contacted by public health officials in collaboration with travel operators and public health equivalents in other places. At points of entry, health promotion and risk communication materials should be available, including information on how to recognize signs and symptoms that are consistent with monkeypox, the precautionary measures recommended for preventing the spread of the disease, and how to seek medical care at the destination if necessary. 

WHO urges all Member States, health authorities at all levels, doctors, health and social sector partners, and academic, research, and commercial partners to act immediately to stop the spread of monkeypox locally and, by extension, globally. Before the virus may establish itself as a human disease capable of efficient person-to-person transmission in previously or newly impacted areas, swift intervention is required.

                    INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Microorganisms, or microbes, such as viruses, bacteria, fungus, or parasites, cause infectious illnesses. There are billions of microbe species, but only a few thousand are pathogens or disease-causing organisms. Many species dwell inside or on the human body, making up the so-called normal microbial flora, which is not only harmless but also beneficial in defending the human host against disease invasion. Infectious diseases can be contracted in a variety of ways, including direct or indirect contact with an infected person, consumption of contaminated foods, use of a contaminated medical device, transmission from an infected mother to her child during pregnancy or birth, contact with an infected animal or animal waste, and bites from carriers like mosquitoes or ticks. Pathogens can be breathed through contaminated aerosol droplets, absorbed through food or beverages, or entered by the nose, mouth, or eyes when individuals handle infected things and subsequently touch their faces. Sexual contact, blood transfusion, or skin wounds are the most common ways that organisms spread through bodily fluids. 

The typical flora is normally innocuous, but in persons with compromised immune systems, it can cause sickness. Resident bacteria can also cause illness if they infiltrate germ-free areas of the body, which can happen after an accident or surgery. Antibiotic overuse may kill beneficial bacteria, enabling disease-causing opportunistic infections to proliferate. Its virulence determines an organism's capacity to infect and harm a host. The stronger a pathogen's virulence, the more serious the disease it may cause. Virulence factors are molecules or structures that allow a disease to infiltrate host tissues and elude immune defenses. To connect to host cells and create a starting point for tissue invasion, some bacteria employ sticky hair-like projections called fimbriae or pili; others use specialized chemicals called adhesins. Some organisms have enzymes that allow them to cut through host cells and enter through mucosal membranes. Viruses attach to and enter host cells via spike proteins on their surface. Some bacteria have a capsule that protects them from phagocyte "eating." Others make enzymes or poisons that stop phagosome development or block lysozyme's lytic function. Pathogens may wreak havoc on the immune system of their hosts in a variety of ways. They can inhibit antibody synthesis or generate super-antigens, which cause non-specific T-cell activation and large cytokine release, among other things. Some viruses may remain latent inside host cells for long periods of time, successfully concealing from the immune system. Antibiotic resistance may develop in bacteria, allowing them to evade treatment.

Pathogens that develop unchecked wreak havoc on host tissues, resulting in symptoms. The infection activates the body's inflammatory response, which attracts immune cells to the infection site to combat it. While inflammation is a necessary defensive mechanism, it can become excessive and cause harm to the body's own tissues, exacerbating the condition. Exotoxins are produced by many microorganisms and can harm the body's systems. The majority of toxins are created during infection, but some pre-formed toxins, such as those that cause food poisoning, can cause sickness even when the bacteria are not present. The outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria includes an endotoxin. This endotoxin causes an overabundance of inflammatory mediators and pro-coagulant factors in septic patients, which can be fatal. Different illnesses present themselves in different ways, but the most frequent symptom of infection is fever, which is one of the body's natural defense mechanisms against infection. Other signs and symptoms differ depending on which system is afflicted. Sepsis and septic shock can result from a systemic infection, which is characterized by fast heart rates, breathing rates, low blood pressure, and symptoms of organ damage. Symptoms and lab tests that reveal the presence and perhaps the identification of the infection are used to make a diagnosis. Antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, and antiparasitics are medications that are used to treat illnesses caused by bacteria, viruses, fungus, and parasites. In certain situations, the pathogen is effectively destroyed by the body's immune system, and the infection resolves on its own. In certain circumstances, the infection overwhelms the immune system, necessitating medical therapy. Infectious illness transmission can be greatly reduced by maintaining good personal hygiene, particularly hand washing.